Monday, June 3, 2019

Genetics of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Neoplasias (PDQ®) 4/4 —Health Professional Version - National Cancer Institute

Genetics of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Neoplasias (PDQ®)—Health Professional Version - National Cancer Institute

National Cancer Institute



Genetics of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Neoplasias (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version

Carney-Stratakis Syndrome

Clinical Description

Carney-Stratakis syndrome (CSS; also known as Carney-Stratakis dyad) was first described in 2002. Although similarly named, this syndrome is distinctly different from Carney complex and Carney triad (refer to Table 6). CSS is characterized by an autosomal dominant germline pathogenic variant in the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) subunit B, C, or D (SDHx) genes that demonstrates incomplete penetrance. Affected individuals develop multifocal, locally aggressive gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) and multiple neck, intrathoracic, and intra-abdominal paragangliomas (PGLs) at relatively early ages.[1-3] CSS-associated GISTs and PGLs display phenotypes that differ from their sporadically occurring, more-common counterparts; as a result, it is important to understand the unique features of imaging, treatment, and surveillance in patients with CSS.
Table 6. Comparison of Carney-Stratakis Syndrome, Carney Triad, and Carney Complex
ENLARGE
SyndromeInheritance PatternMean Age at Onset (y)Affected SexAssociated LesionsPathogenic VariantsTumor Behavior
AD = autosomal dominant; GIST = gastrointestinal stromal tumor; F = female; M = male.
Carney-Stratakis syndrome [1,3,4]AD23M, FParaganglioma, stomach epithelioid GISTGermline SDHxpathogenic variants common; no KIT or PDGFRApathogenic variantsGIST metastasis but protracted course; paraganglioma aggressive
Carney triad [4-6]None<30>95% FLung chondroma, paraganglioma, stomach epithelioid GISTNo KIT orPDGFRApathogenic variants; rarely, SDHxpathogenic variants (9.5% in one series) [7]GIST metastasis but protracted course
Carney complex [8,9]AD20M, FLentigines, myxomas, schwannoma, thyroid follicular adenomas or carcinoma, primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease, pituitary adenomasGermline PRKAR1Apathogenic variantsN/A

Genetics, Inheritance, and Genetic Testing

The tumorigenesis of CSS-associated GISTs appears to involve succinate dehydrogenase deficiency rather than gain-of-function variants in the KIT or PDGFRA gene, as is seen in the vast majority of GISTs.[10] SDH deficiency is also a characteristic finding of pediatric-type GISTs; CSS-associated GISTs display clinical findings similar to these tumors, including young age at onset (median age, 19 y), specificity to the stomach, multifocality, and resistance to imatinib.[3,11-13] Furthermore, tumor size and mitotic rate do not accurately predict metastatic potential or survival, as SDH-deficient GISTs frequently metastasize to regional lymph nodes, the peritoneal cavity, and the liver; however, long-term survival is common.[6,14]
Refer to the Genetics, Inheritance, and Genetic Testing section in the Familial PGL section of this summary for more information about genetic testing for the genes involved in CSS.

Surveillance

Although the natural history of CSS is poorly understood, experts recommend that ongoing surveillance include the following: close patient follow-up with annual history that focuses on symptoms of anemia and catecholamine excess, physical exam, biochemical analysis with plasma metanephrine level and chromogranin A to detect recurrent PGLs, and cross-sectional imaging. Although many PGLs do not secrete catecholamines, chromogranin A has been found to be elevated in PGLs and may be a useful marker for tumor recurrence. The appropriate screening imaging modality is unknown at this time, but fluorine F 18-fludeoxyglucose positron emission tomography–computed tomography (18F-FDG PET-CT) is highly sensitive at identifying extra-adrenal PGLs and GISTs. Because of the risks of ionizing radiation exposure from CT, some suggest using MRI for annual surveillance.[15,16]
Level of evidence: 4

Interventions

Because multiple primary GISTs and PGLs are common with CSS, preoperative imaging is paramount to accurately identify the extent of disease before surgical planning. Most patients will present having already undergone imaging with CT or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Both methods have excellent sensitivity for identifying PGLs, but additional functional imaging is recommended because of the diffuse nature of these tumors. 18F-FDG PET-CT is superior to iodine I 123-metaiodobenzylguanidine at identifying SDHx-associated PGLs and, because of the high metabolic activity of GISTs, has excellent sensitivity in identifying them.[15,17] Thus, in patients with SDHx pathogenic variants, including those with CSS, 18F-FDG PET-CT is the preferred functional imaging modality to optimally detect and stage all GISTs and PGLs.[16] Some evidence suggests that 18F-fluoro-L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (18F-FDOPA) PET-CT is superior at identifying the primary PGL, while 18F-FDG PET-CT is superior at identifying metastases.
There are no prospective treatment studies involving patients with CSS; therefore, recommendations are based on limited clinical experience, single case series, and extrapolations from genetically-similar tumors with similar clinical behavior. The mainstay of treatment for CSS-associated GISTs and PGLs is complete surgical resection of the tumor. The timing of the operation correlates with the presentation of the tumor. Surgical resection can be accomplished with laparoscopic or open techniques. For PGLs, vascular reconstruction is uncommon. Although PGLs are commonly present in the paraaortic region, the need for major vascular reconstruction is uncommon. GIST tumors can be resected with wedge resection and primary closure and re-anastomosis. Ensuring negative margins is important, as patients for whom a complete resection is accomplished experience the longest survival.[18] In the rare setting of synchronous disease, combined resection is appropriate if tolerable by the patient. More commonly, tumors develop metachronously, with GISTs arising first; individual resection occurs at the time of diagnosis of each tumor.
A thorough preoperative endoscopy and complete surgical exploration of the stomach are essential, as multiple separate GISTs are frequently encountered. The high frequency of multifocality and the likelihood of tumor recurrence do not justify a prophylactic total gastrectomy because of its substantial associated morbidity. Furthermore, a total gastrectomy is generally only performed when the current disease burden precludes a lesser resection. To this end, gastric wedge resection with gross negative margins is the surgical goal.[19] Sampling of any suspicious nodes at the time of resection is commonly performed. Evidence suggests that locally advanced CSS-associated GISTs demonstrate a rather indolent course;[20] thus, the concern for nodal involvement based on preoperative imaging or abdominal exploration need not deter resection of the primary tumor. While a role for neoadjuvant imatinib in locally advanced adult-type GISTs has been widely described to improve resectability or reduce the burden of resection, it is unlikely to have any effect in locally advanced SDH-deficient GISTs.[21] Evidence suggests that for these tumors, the second-line targeted agents, including sorafenib, sunitinib, dasatinib, and nilotinib, may be beneficial in the adjuvant setting.[22,23] No data support using these agents in the neoadjuvant setting at this time.
Regarding treatment of CSS-associated PGLs, patients are commonly initiated on alpha-blockade preoperatively to minimize perioperative cardiac morbidity and mortality. PGLs typically occur in the para-aortic chain from the urinary bladder and the aortic bifurcation to the superior mediastinum and head and neck. As in the treatment of GISTs, the operative goal is resection of all known disease. Preoperative imaging and intra-operative exploration are essential to achieving this goal. Multiple tumors are common; when disease is present in the bilateral adrenal glands, the surgeon faces the possibility of rendering a patient steroid dependent with a lifelong risk of a fatal Addisonian crisis. In this setting, a surgeon proficient in performing a cortical-sparing adrenalectomy may be consulted.
Level of evidence: 5
References
  1. Carney JA, Stratakis CA: Familial paraganglioma and gastric stromal sarcoma: a new syndrome distinct from the Carney triad. Am J Med Genet 108 (2): 132-9, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  2. McWhinney SR, Pasini B, Stratakis CA, et al.: Familial gastrointestinal stromal tumors and germ-line mutations. N Engl J Med 357 (10): 1054-6, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Pasini B, McWhinney SR, Bei T, et al.: Clinical and molecular genetics of patients with the Carney-Stratakis syndrome and germline mutations of the genes coding for the succinate dehydrogenase subunits SDHB, SDHC, and SDHD. Eur J Hum Genet 16 (1): 79-88, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Gaal J, Stratakis CA, Carney JA, et al.: SDHB immunohistochemistry: a useful tool in the diagnosis of Carney-Stratakis and Carney triad gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Mod Pathol 24 (1): 147-51, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Agaimy A, Pelz AF, Corless CL, et al.: Epithelioid gastric stromal tumours of the antrum in young females with the Carney triad: a report of three new cases with mutational analysis and comparative genomic hybridization. Oncol Rep 18 (1): 9-15, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Zhang L, Smyrk TC, Young WF Jr, et al.: Gastric stromal tumors in Carney triad are different clinically, pathologically, and behaviorally from sporadic gastric gastrointestinal stromal tumors: findings in 104 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 34 (1): 53-64, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Boikos SA, Xekouki P, Fumagalli E, et al.: Carney triad can be (rarely) associated with germline succinate dehydrogenase defects. Eur J Hum Genet 24 (4): 569-73, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Boikos SA, Stratakis CA: Carney complex: pathology and molecular genetics. Neuroendocrinology 83 (3-4): 189-99, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Correa R, Salpea P, Stratakis CA: Carney complex: an update. Eur J Endocrinol 173 (4): M85-97, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Hensen EF, Bayley JP: Recent advances in the genetics of SDH-related paraganglioma and pheochromocytoma. Fam Cancer 10 (2): 355-63, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Agaram NP, Laquaglia MP, Ustun B, et al.: Molecular characterization of pediatric gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Clin Cancer Res 14 (10): 3204-15, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Miettinen M, Wang ZF, Sarlomo-Rikala M, et al.: Succinate dehydrogenase-deficient GISTs: a clinicopathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular genetic study of 66 gastric GISTs with predilection to young age. Am J Surg Pathol 35 (11): 1712-21, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Sawhney SA, Chapman AD, Carney JA, et al.: Incomplete Carney triad--a review of two cases. QJM 102 (9): 649-53, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Rege TA, Wagner AJ, Corless CL, et al.: "Pediatric-type" gastrointestinal stromal tumors in adults: distinctive histology predicts genotype and clinical behavior. Am J Surg Pathol 35 (4): 495-504, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Ayala-Ramirez M, Callender GG, Kupferman ME, et al.: Paraganglioma syndrome type 1 in a patient with Carney-Stratakis syndrome. Nat Rev Endocrinol 6 (2): 110-5, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Timmers HJ, Kozupa A, Chen CC, et al.: Superiority of fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography to other functional imaging techniques in the evaluation of metastatic SDHB-associated pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. J Clin Oncol 25 (16): 2262-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Timmers HJ, Chen CC, Carrasquillo JA, et al.: Comparison of 18F-fluoro-L-DOPA, 18F-fluoro-deoxyglucose, and 18F-fluorodopamine PET and 123I-MIBG scintigraphy in the localization of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94 (12): 4757-67, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  18. Abadin SS, Ayala-Ramirez M, Jimenez C, et al.: Impact of surgical resection for subdiaphragmatic paragangliomas. World J Surg 38 (3): 733-41, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Demetri GD, Benjamin RS, Blanke CD, et al.: NCCN Task Force report: management of patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)--update of the NCCN clinical practice guidelines. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 5 (Suppl 2): S1-29; quiz S30, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Maki RG, Blay JY, Demetri GD, et al.: Key Issues in the Clinical Management of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors: An Expert Discussion. Oncologist 20 (7): 823-30, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Ganjoo KN, Villalobos VM, Kamaya A, et al.: A multicenter phase II study of pazopanib in patients with advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) following failure of at least imatinib and sunitinib. Ann Oncol 25 (1): 236-40, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Gill AJ, Chou A, Vilain R, et al.: Immunohistochemistry for SDHB divides gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) into 2 distinct types. Am J Surg Pathol 34 (5): 636-44, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Janeway KA, Albritton KH, Van Den Abbeele AD, et al.: Sunitinib treatment in pediatric patients with advanced GIST following failure of imatinib. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (7): 767-71, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]

Familial Nonmedullary Thyroid Cancer

Clinical Description

Papillary and follicular cancers, along with their various histologic subtypes, arise from the follicular cells of the thyroid and are collectively referred to as differentiated thyroid canceror nonmedullary thyroid cancer (NMTC). Papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) is the most common form of thyroid cancer, comprising nearly 85% of all cases, and is rapidly increasing in incidence worldwide.[1,2]
Radiation exposure, particularly during childhood, has been extensively studied as a causative factor in the development of thyroid cancer; however, it accounts for only a small minority of cases.[3,4] One of the strongest risk factors for the development of thyroid cancer is a family history of the disease, in which cases are termed familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer (FNMTC). The exact incidence of FNMTC is difficult to determine because the criteria used to qualify as a heritable condition varies among studies. Criteria that have yet to be universally defined include the number of affected relatives and their relationship (i.e., first-degree relatives, second-degree relatives, etc.), pattern of inheritance, and the presence of coexisting thyroid conditions.
Further confounding the distinction between inherited and sporadic disease is the high prevalence of incidental microcarcinomas, which may be found in 10% to 15% of surgeries or autopsies.[5] Because there are no identifiable genes transmitted in the majority of families, this high background prevalence of disease poses a challenge in assessing the risk of a thyroid malignancy in other family members. This uncertainty may be especially problematic when there are borderline cases of inherited disease; for example, two second-degree relatives with thyroid cancer.
FNMTC may be part of a larger syndrome associated with tumors involving other organs or may represent a stand-alone condition. Table 7 outlines the various hereditary syndromes associated with NMTC.

Genetics, Inheritance, and Genetic Testing

The genetics of familial medullary thyroid cancer (FMTC) in the context of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 are well established. Genetic factors also clearly contribute to NMTC, as it has one of the highest heritabilities of any cancer site, with a relative risk of fivefold to tenfold for relatives of patients, especially (female) siblings.[6-9] FNMTC, which includes follicular subtypes, primarily papillary, is thought to account for 5% to 10% of all NMTC cases.[6,10,11] Notably, when there are only two individuals affected in a family, there is a 40% to 60% chance that the disease is actually sporadic, whereas when three or more family members are affected there is a 96% chance the disease has an inherited component.[12] With the exception of a few rare genetic syndromes with NMTC as a minor component, the majority of FNMTC is nonsyndromic and the underlying genetic predisposition is unclear. Still, the term familial cancer is somewhat misleading as FNMTC pedigrees demonstrate a definitive mendelian pattern of inheritance which is autosomal dominant with incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity.[6,13-16] However, unlike FMTC, FNMTC is a polygenic disease with no single locus responsible for the majority of cases or easily identifiable phenotype and it is likely modified by multiple low-penetrancealleles and environmental factors.[17]

Ruling out syndromic FNMTC

As there is no clinical genetic testing for nonsyndromic FNMTC, identification of at-risk families must rely on astute clinicians obtaining a thorough clinical examination and detailed personal and family history of any patient presenting with thyroid cancer or disease. Aspects of a history that suggest FNMTC include multiple generations affected, early-onset bilateral/multifocal thyroid tumors (especially in males) with a more aggressive clinical course, and association with benign thyroid pathologies.[18] Detailed work-up is critical in FNMTC as it is ultimately a diagnosis of exclusion in the sense that other familial cancer predisposition syndromes associated with NMTC must first be ruled out, such as Cowden syndrome or familial adenomatous polyposis. These differential diagnoses for FNMTC are outlined in Table 7. Notably, the association of NMTC with McCune-Albright, Peutz-Jeghers, ataxia-telangiectasia, and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndromes is less established.
Table 7. Hereditary Syndromes Associated With Nonmedullary Thyroid Cancera
ENLARGE
SyndromeGeneInheritanceIncidence of Thyroid Cancer (%)Type of Thyroid CancerExtrathyroidal Clinical Features
FAP = familial adenomatous polyposis; FTC = follicular thyroid cancer; MNG = multinodular goiter; PTC = papillary thyroid cancer.
aAdapted from Nose,[19] Sturgeon et al.,[20] and Vriens et al.[18]
FAP/Gardner syndromeAPCAutosomal dominant2PTC (cribriform morular variant)Gastrointestinal adenomatous polyps; Gardner syndrome also includes desmoid tumors, supernumerary teeth, fibrous dysplasia of skull, osteomas, epidermoid cysts, hypertrophy of retinal epithelium.
Cowden syndrome (PTENhamartoma syndrome)PTEN(rarely SDHx, KLLN, AKT1, PIK3CA)Autosomal dominant10–35FTC, PTCMalignant tumors and hamartomas of breast, endometrium, thyroid, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, brain, skin.
Carney complexPRKAR1αAutosomal dominant11–15FTC, PTCMyxomas of soft tissues, skin and mucosal pigmentation (blue nevi), schwannomas, tumors of adrenal, pituitary and testicle.
Werner syndromeWRNAutosomal recessive18FTC, anaplastic PTCPremature aging (adult progeria), scleroderma-like skin changes, cataracts, subcutaneous calcifications, muscular atrophy, diabetes.
DICER1syndromeDICER1Autosomal dominantUnknownPTC (and MNG)Familial pleuropulmonary blastoma; cystic nephroma; ovarian Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors.
McCune-Albright syndromeGNASMosaic somatic mutationsUnknownFTCPolyostotic fibrous dysplasia, café-au-lait spots, endocrine hyperfunction of pituitary, adrenal, gonadal tissues.
Peutz-Jeghers syndromeSTK11 (LKB1)Autosomal dominantUnknownPrimarily PTCHamartomas of small intestine, mucocutaneous hyperpigmentation, Sertoli cell testicular tumors.
Ataxia-telangiectasiaATMAutosomal recessiveUnknownPrimarily PTCCerebellar ataxia and nystagmus, oculocutaneous telangiectasia, immunodeficiency, lymphoreticular cancers.
Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1)MEN1Autosomal dominantUnknownPrimarily PTCTumors of parathyroid glands, endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tract, anterior pituitary gland.

Identifying genes and inherited variants associated with nonsyndromic FNMTC

Various methods have been employed to uncover the landscape of genetic variation associated with FNMTC, mainly genome-wide linkage analysis using microsatellite markers evenly distributed across the genome and informative large pedigrees with multiple affected family members. More than 15 genetic loci have been linked to FNMTC, which are summarized in Table 8. The loci that are italicized represent those where the susceptibility gene has been identified; the causal genes at the other loci remain unknown. The first four loci were identified by microsatellite linkage analysis. The remaining loci have been identified by increasingly dense single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays as well as microRNA arrays and, most recently, next-generation sequencing. (Refer to the PDQ Cancer Genetics Overview summary for more information about linkage analysis and next-generation sequencing.) Most of these studies have been done on groups of families with pedigrees consistent with FNMTC; however, two of the loci were identified through large, population level SNP array analysis. It is important to note that several studies have excluded the genes that are most commonly somatically altered in association with sporadic NMTC as having a role in FNMTC, namely BRAF, RET, RET/PTC, MET, MEK1, MEK2, RAS, and NTRK.[21]
Table 8. Nonsyndromic Familial Nonmedullary Thyroid Cancer Susceptibility Loci
ENLARGE
LocusLocationTumor TypeSample SizeaStudy TypeOriginal Cohort Country of OriginYearReferences
FTC = follicular thyroid cancer; MNG = multinodular goiter; miRNA = microRNA; NMTC = nonmedullary thyroid cancer; PRN = papillary renal neoplasia; PTC = papillary thyroid cancer; SNP = single nucleotide polymorphism; WES = whole-exome sequencing.
aCombined across studies.
MNG114q31MNG with PTC1 kindredMicrosatellite linkageCanada1997[22]
18 MNG
2 PTC
TCO19p13.2PTC with oxyphilia1 kindredMicrosatellite linkageFrance1998[23-26]
20 families
6 MNG
3 PTC
49 NMTC
fPTC/PRN1q21PTC with PRN1 kindredMicrosatellite linkageUnited States2000[27]
5 PTC
2 PRN
NMTC12q21PTC (follicular variant)1 kindred, 80 pedigreesMicrosatellite linkageTasmania2001[25,26,28]
19 families
49 NMTC
FTEN8p23.1-p22PTC (classic)1 kindred10K SNP arrayPortugal2008[29]
11 benign
5 NMTC
Unknown8q24PTC with melanoma26 families50K SNP arrayUnited States2009[30]
FOXE19q22.33PTC/FTC60 families300K SNP arrayIceland/Spain/United States2009[31]
197 PTC/FTC
NKX2-1/TITF-114q13.3PTC and MNG60 families300K SNP arrayIceland/United States/Spain2009[31]
197 PTC/FTC
Unknown6q22PTC/FTC (classic)38 families50K SNP arrayUnited States/Italy2009[32]
49 PTC
miR-886-3p5q31.2PTC21 PTC3K miRNA arrayUnited States2011[33]
7 FNMTC
10 normal thyroid tissue
miR-20a13q31.3PTC21 PTC3K miRNA arrayUnited States2011[33]
7 FNMTC
10 normal thyroid tissue
Telomere-telomerase complex (TERT, TRF1, TFR2, RAP1, TIN2, TPP1, POT1)5p15.3 (TERT), etc.PTC47 PTC  2008[34]
SRGAP112q14PTC38 families250K SNP arrayUnited States/Poland2013[35]
HAPB210q25-26PTC, follicular adenoma1 kindredWESUnited States2015[36]
7 PTC
RTFC (c14orf93)14q11.2PTC15 familiesWESChina2017[37]
Susceptibility loci identified through linkage analyses
MNG1, TCO, fPTC/PRN and NMTC1 are proposed FNMTC susceptibility loci identified in families with multiple affected individuals and are summarized in Table 8. Conflicting evidence exists regarding the linkage to the loci described above. MNG1 has shown strong evidence of linkage in only one Canadian kindred with multiple multinodular goiters (MNGs) and linkage analyses in 124 additional families failed to find an association between MNG1 and FNMTC. Therefore, the locus may be important for MNG alone but not for FNMTC.[22,23,27,38-40] TCO accounts for a minority of FNMTC cases, but specifically those associated with tumor cell oxyphilia, which is a rare morphology that does not apply to the majority of FNMTC cases ascertained.[23-26] fPTC/PRN is also a rare subtype of FNMTC in which PTC is associated with papillary renal neoplasia, but other than the original family reported, no additional families sharing this phenotype have been identified.[23,27,40] NMTC1 seems to predispose to the follicular variant of PTC, another rare subtype. Classic PTC and oxyphilic tumors are also associated with this locus, though to a lesser extent.[25,25,28] In 2001, a comprehensive mutation and linkage analysis of 22 international FNMTC families revealed that only one family had significant linkage to any known susceptibility locus (TCO in this case), including the ones described above.[23] This cumulative evidence suggests that these FNMTC loci account for disease in a small subset of families, which is consistent with the concept that FNMTC exhibits genetic and locus heterogeneity.
Susceptibility loci identified through genome-wide SNP arrays
Five FNMTC loci have been identified through increasingly dense SNP arrays, also listed in Table 8. The first FNMTC study done by SNP array along with microsatellite analysis was in 2008 in a Portuguese family.[29] This family had five members with PTC (4 classic and 1 follicular variant) and 11 members with benign thyroid diseases. The susceptibility locus was identified at 8p23.1-p22 and designated FTEN (familial thyroid epithelial neoplasia). The 8q24 locus was first identified from a linkage analysis study using SNP arrays of 26 FNMTC families (with PTC). One family had three generations of PTC and melanoma (and MNG); but melanoma was not reported in the other 25 families. Sequencing of genes in the 8q24 region did not reveal any candidate pathogenic variants, but gene expression analysis indicated AK023948 (PTSCC1), a noncoding RNA gene that is downregulated in PTC, could be involved.[30]
In 2009, a population-level study was done in Iceland on 197 cases of PTC or FTC and compared with genotypes of 37,196 Icelandic controls.[31] Two loci had high statistical significance, 9q22.33 and 14q13.3, which are near the genes FOXE1 and NKX2-1, respectively. Two SNPs in particular were associated with increased risk of PTC and FTC: rs944289 (near NKX2-1) and rs965513 (near FOXE1). These results were replicated in two additional large cohorts from the United States (726 individuals tested) and Spain (1,433 individuals tested), as well as other cohorts that also found additional SNPs of interest, particularly in FOXE1.[31,41,42] FOXE1 remains a gene of interest in FNMTC because it produces a thyroid transcription factor with a key role in thyroid gland formation, differentiation, and function.[43] The NKX2.1/TITF-1 gene also encodes a thyroid transcription factor. A germline variant, A339V, has been reported in two FNMTC families affected with MNG or PTC/MNG;[44] however, this association could not be replicated in subsequent studies of other families.[45] Lastly, a large United States and Italian cohort (110 individuals, 49 affected, from 28 FNMTC families) was studied using a 50K SNP array. The majority of these families had classic PTC. The pooled analysis showed linkage to previously identified 1q21 locus (PRN) and a new locus at 6q22.[32]
MicroRNA (miRNA) susceptibility loci
miRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression. Whole-genome miRNA microarrays were used to evaluate 21 sporadic and seven familial NMTC cases, as well as ten normal thyroid tissue samples.[33] Two miRNAs, miR-20a (13q31.3) and miR-886-3p (5q31.2), were differentially expressed between sporadic and familial NMTC, as confirmed by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Both were also downregulated in NMTC compared with normal thyroid tissues by fourfold. Cell-line transfection studies using miR-886-3p confirmed that it plays a critical role in cell proliferation and migration and it regulates genes involved in DNA replication and focal adhesion pathways.[33] Furthermore, a polymorphism in pre-miR-146a (rs2910164) has been shown to affect miRNA expression and was identified in a significant proportion of the tumors of 608 PTC patients, suggesting it could contribute to genetic predisposition to PTC and play a role in the tumorigenesis through somatic changes.[46] The role of gene regulatory mechanisms and their effect on gene expression and FNMTC tumorigenesis warrants further exploration.
Telomere-telomerase complex
Telomeres are noncoding chromosomal ends consisting of tandem repeats that are important in maintaining chromosomal stability. Telomere length is maintained by a telomerase complex that includes telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT), along with six other proteins: TRF1, TFR2, RAP1, TIN2, TPP1, and POT1.[47] Shortened telomere length is associated with chromosomal instability that can play a role in cancer development. The telomere-telomerase complex has become a focus of investigation as another possible genetic mechanism for predisposition to FNMTC. In 2008, a cohort of patients with FNMTC was studied using qualitative PCR and fluorescence in situ hybridization to evaluate relative telomere length.[34] They found that telomere length was significantly shorter in familial PTC patients compared with unaffected family members and sporadic PTC. The same group also found that the telomeres in FNMTC cancers were relatively fragile and had a high rate of fragment formation.[48] A second study of telomere length in FNMTC also showed shorter telomere lengths in 13 affected patients compared with 31 unaffectedfamily members.[49] However, the same study showed that relative telomere length was not associated with altered copy number or expression of telomere complex genes hTERT, TRF1, TFR2, RAP1, TIN2, TPP1, or POT1. Other studies have failed to show any significant differences in telomere length between FNMTC and sporadic PTC cases.[50] The role and mechanism of the telomere-telomerase complex in predisposition to FNMTC remains to be elucidated.
Other recently identified FNMTC susceptibility genes and variants
SRGAP1 is a gene that was identified in 2013 through genome-wide linkage analysis of 38 FNMTC families with PTC from the United States and Poland.[35] Four germline missense variants were identified but two variants, Q149H and A275T, were most notable because they segregated in two separate families but not in 800 sporadic cases. SRGAP1 regulates the small G-protein CDC42 in neurons and affects cell mobility.[51] Functional assays demonstrated that Q149H and R617C variants in SRGAP1 could lead to loss-of-function changes that impair ability to inactivate CDC42, which could lead to tumorigenesis.[35] Further studies are needed to validate the association of this gene in other FNMTC cohorts.
HAPB2 was identified in 2015 through whole-exome sequencing (WES) of seven affected members of an FNMTC kindred with PTC and follicular adenoma, using unaffected spouses as controls.[36] One specific germline variant, G534E, was found in the heterozygous state in all affected cases. The group also detected this variant, through next-generation sequencing, in 4.7% of NMTC cases from the Cancer Genome Atlas. It was associated with increased protein expression in thyroid neoplasms from affected family members compared with normal thyroid tissue or sporadic PTC. Functional studies of G534E showed that it increased colony formation and cellular migration, suggesting a loss of tumor suppression function. Notably, the authors used a criterion of general population frequency of 1% or less to filter variants identified in this kindred using the 1000 Genomes Project (phase III) and HapMap3. However, subsequent correspondences commented on higher reported frequencies of G534E variants from public databases including that of the Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC) (2.22% in total population, 3.29% in non-Finnish Europeans) and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Grand Opportunity Exome Sequencing Project database (5.5% in total, 3.88% in Americans of European descent).[52-54] Many additional studies have been conducted to ascertain the frequency of HAPB2 G534E in FNMTC with variable results. While the variant was not identified in 12 Chinese FNMTC families with PTC (nor in 217 patients with sporadic PTC) [54] or in 11 Middle Eastern FNMTC family members,[55] it was shown to segregate in several independent FNMTC kindreds with PTC from a United States study.[56] Several other studies have shown that the G534E variant has greater or equal frequency in controls and sporadic cases than in familial cases of PTC, even if it was identified in their cohort at all, or did not segregate with disease in the family.[55,57-59] Therefore, it seems that the HAPB2G534E variant frequency differs among ancestries and populations, being low-to-moderate in European ancestry and low or absent in Asian and Middle Eastern populations. Larger validation studies are required to determine its role and association with FNMTC.
Lastly, RTFC (c14orf93) was identified through WES of FNMTC families in China.[37] Three genes were identified as candidate genes for FNMTC (RTFC, PYGL, and BMP4) but the RTFCgene was the only one shown to have oncogenic function in promoting thyroid cancer cell survival under starving conditions and promoting cell migration and colony-forming capacity. Specifically, the V205M (c.613G>C) variant in RTFC was important because it was identified in FNMTC patients but absent in unaffected controls. Two additional oncogenic mutations of RTFC were identified (R115Q and G209D) in sporadic NMTC patients. Collectively, the frequencies of these variants in ExAC in East Asian populations are higher than frequencies in the total population, which could be an indicator of this gene being most relevant in East Asian FNMTC families. Larger validation studies of this gene and these variants need to be conducted.
In summary, although multiple susceptibility loci have been identified in FNMTC families, no single locus accounts for the majority of nonsyndromic FNMTC and no gene identified shows strong enough associations to warrant clinical genetic testing. Newer sequencing techniques, including WES, will allow for new genes to be discovered and evaluated. Identifying susceptibility genes will allow for screening and early diagnosis, which in turn would lead to improved outcomes for patients and families.

Surveillance

Differentiated thyroid cancer, whether inherited or sporadic, may be associated with a high rate of recurrence, depending on the clinicopathologic features of the disease. Disease recurrence may occur as late as 40 years after initial diagnosis.[60] Surveillance for recurrent disease therefore plays an important role in the long-term management of patients with these tumors. The optimal follow-up strategy is dependent upon both the initial tumor characteristics and the patient's response to therapy.[61] Fortunately, for most patients, the disease is associated with a low risk of recurrence, and surveillance is accordingly less intensive. In these cases, postoperative evaluation is centered on sonographic examination of the neck and measurement of serum thyroglobulin.[61]
Thyroglobulin, a protein produced by both benign and malignant thyroid follicular cells, is used as a tumor marker for patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroglobulin measurement is most sensitive after a total thyroidectomy, so detection of thyroglobulin—particularly an increasing trend in the serum concentration—is often an early indicator of recurrent or progressive disease.[62] However, it is important to recognize several caveats about the use of this tumor marker. It is imperative to assess serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyroglobulin antibody levels concomitantly at each measurement. Thyroglobulin rises with increasing TSH values; therefore, an elevating thyroglobulin level could indicate progressive disease or simply a rising TSH level. Furthermore, the presence of thyroglobulin antibodies can interfere with the accurate measurement of thyroglobulin, with most cases resulting in a spurious lowering of the tumor marker.[63] In such cases, the antibody titer may be used as a surrogate marker of disease status.[61] The final caveat about the use of thyroglobulin as a tumor marker is that the test must be performed in the same laboratory at each measurement to accurately assess the trend in levels; each assay can render a different value of thyroglobulin on the same serum sample.[61] Measurement of serum thyroglobulin to assess for recurrent or persistent disease may be performed 3 to 6 months after therapy is completed and monitored periodically thereafter, depending on the concern for persistent or recurrent disease.[61] Stimulated thyroglobulin testing (after withdrawal of thyroid hormone reaches a minimum TSH level of 30 mIU/L or after recombinant TSH injection) may be useful in select patients, particularly in patients with follicular thyroid cancer or in whom there is high clinical suspicion of recurrent or residual disease.
Whether a patient has received radioactive iodine or only surgery, careful ultrasonography of all compartments in the anterior neck is an important tool to determine if there is recurrent or residual disease because most disease is localized in this region. The initial ultrasonography is typically performed 6 to 12 months after surgery.[61] Ultrasonography may be performed sooner if there is concern about residual disease, but it is important for the sonographer to recognize the potential for false-positive findings due to postoperative swelling. The timing and need for subsequent sonographic evaluation of the neck is dependent upon the patient’s risk for recurrence and the serum thyroglobulin status.[61]
Ultrasonography combined with a serum thyroglobulin test has a very high sensitivity for identifying nodal disease, far superior to the radioiodine diagnostic whole-body scans that were historically the mainstay of surveillance.[62]

Interventions

Once a thyroid nodule is detected, further work-up includes complete ultrasonography of the thyroid, as well as a comprehensive neck ultrasonography to evaluate the central and lateral neck lymph nodes. Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is indicated for cytologic evaluation of suspicious nodules based on size of the nodule, imaging characteristics, and associated patient risk factors.[64,65] Most current guidelines recommend FNA biopsy of all nodules measuring 10 mm or larger. Nodules smaller than 10 mm in greatest dimension may still warrant cytologic evaluation if radiographic imaging demonstrates features concerning for malignancy. Ultrasonographic features suspicious for malignancy include hypoechogenicity, complex or solid nodules, vascularity, irregular borders, and calcifications. Comprehensive preoperative neck ultrasonography not only provides the opportunity for FNA biopsy of any suspicious nodes before surgery but also allows the surgeon to plan the appropriate surgery and counsel the patient regarding a surgical procedure and its associated risks.[66] Although positron emission tomography scanning is not recommended for thyroid nodule assessment, concentrated uptake of contrast in the thyroid gland may be detected when the scan is obtained for other reasons. Incidental increase in fluorine F 18-fludeoxyglucose avidity, and an increase in nodule size (more than 50% volume) during surveillance may also be indications for FNA biopsy of nodules.[61]

Cytologic evaluation and indeterminate thyroid nodules

The Bethesda Thyroid Cytology Classification standardizes the cytologic interpretation of thyroid biopsies. Pathologic results are classified into one of the following six categories:[67]
  • Nondiagnostic or unsatisfactory.
  • Benign.
  • Atypia of undetermined significance (AUS) or follicular lesion of undetermined significance (FLUS).
  • Follicular neoplasm or suspicious for follicular neoplasm.
  • Suspicious for malignancy.
  • Malignant.
Patients with biopsy-proven malignant nodules (or nodules suspicious for malignancy) will need surgical resection as discussed below. Nodules classified as AUS/FLUS fall into the indeterminate category because the extent of architectural or cytologic atypia excludes a benign diagnosis, but the degree of atypia is insufficient for a definitive malignant classification.[67] These lesions are generally followed with repeat FNA and surgically resected if the clinical features of the nodule change, or if biopsies repeatedly result in AUS/FLUS classification.

Surgical treatment of thyroid cancer

Patients with a diagnosis of FNMTC may have increased aggressiveness of disease in comparison with sporadic cases.[68] In instances where the tumor is within a unifocal, intrathyroidal nodule, measuring less than 1 cm in dimension, incidentally identified and having low-risk features, thyroid lobectomy may be the appropriate treatment. Patients with intermediate lesions between 1 cm and 4 cm may undergo lobectomy and isthmectomy only if there is concern for noncompliance of thyroid hormone replacement therapy. Otherwise, most experts support total thyroidectomy because of the risk of increased frequency of multicentric disease, lymph node metastases, local invasion, and recurrence of aggressive disease.[68,69] Most surgeons would agree that patients with FNMTC and radiographically, clinically, or intraoperatively suspicious or biopsy-proven metastatic lymph nodes warrant total thyroidectomy and therapeutic compartment-based removal of the lymph node basin(s). Controversy exists, however, as to the appropriate treatment of nonenlarged lymph nodes of the central neck at the time of initial thyroidectomy. Specifically, some groups advocate routine prophylactic central node dissection (PCND) for all patients with known FNMTC to decrease the risk of local recurrence, although there are no specific, prospective, randomized data to support a survival benefit.[70,71] While two retrospective studies (not specific to hereditary thyroid cancer) have reported a reduction in disease recurrence rates associated with PCND,[72,73] two meta-analyses have shown that PCND does not reduce recurrence rates in a clinically significant manner.[74,75] The current recommendations published by the American Thyroid Association (ATA) state that prophylactic or bilateral Level VI lymph node dissection is recommended in patients with T3/T4 papillary cancer (whether familial or not), clinically involved lateral neck nodes or if the information will be used to plan further therapy such as radioactive iodine ablation. The ATA also states that this recommendation should be interpreted in light of available surgical expertise, acknowledging that PCND may lead to increased perioperative morbidity.[61] Currently, selective, rather than routine PCND seems the most reasonable option to guide the decision process.[76]
After total thyroidectomy, patients will need lifelong thyroid hormone replacement therapy.[61] The levothyroxine replacement therapy dose is approximately 1.6 µg/kg/day and is then titrated to reach an appropriate level of TSH suppression.[77,78] The degree of TSH suppression is also individualized on the basis of the patient’s disease status, risk of recurrence, an individual's risk of cardiovascular and bone complications with aggressive TSH suppression,[61] and clinicopathological tumor features. Patients typically undergo a surveillance regimen for recurrence consisting of laboratory evaluation and ultrasonography. In papillary and follicular cancer, thyroxine and TSH demonstrate the level of thyroid suppression, and thyroglobulin and thyroglobulin antibody levels are important markers for possible disease recurrence or metastases.
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Changes to This Summary (05/24/2019)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1
The Treatment for parathyroid tumors subsection was extensively revised.
Added Triponez et al. as reference 75.
Added Plöckinger and Falconi et al. as references 97 and 98, respectively.
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2
Updated National Comprehensive Cancer Network as reference 23.
Added Mulligan and 2016 Romei et al. as references 95 and 96, respectively.
Added Robson et al. as reference 97.
Added Wells, 2011 Romei et al., and Elisei et al. as references 101, 102, and 103, respectively.
Added Mathiesen et al. as reference 105.
Added Voss et al. as reference 107.
Revised text to state that the risk of medullary thyroid cancer in individuals with moderate-risk pathogenic variants in the RET gene is approximately 95% to 100%; the risk of pheochromocytoma and hyperparathyroidism is lower than that seen in individuals with high-risk pathogenic variants.
Revised text to state that some studies demonstrate compelling evidence that RET variants Y791F and S649L are likely benign polymorphisms, on the basis of equal frequencies among cases and healthy controls and co-occurrence with other disease-causing variants that cosegregate with disease in the family.
This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Cancer Genetics Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® - NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database pages.

About This PDQ Summary

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the genetics of endocrine and neuroendocrine neoplasias. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Cancer Genetics Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:
  • be discussed at a meeting,
  • be cited with text, or
  • replace or update an existing article that is already cited.
Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.
The lead reviewers for Genetics of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Neoplasias are:
  • Kathleen A. Calzone, PhD, RN, AGN-BC, FAAN (National Cancer Institute)
  • Sarah Nielsen, MS, LCGC (The University of Chicago)
  • Suzanne M. O'Neill, MS, PhD, CGC
  • Nancy D. Perrier, MD, FACS (University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center)
  • Beth N. Peshkin, MS, CGC (Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center at Georgetown University Medical Center)
  • Susan K. Peterson, PhD, MPH (University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center)
  • Jennifer Sipos, MD (The Ohio State University)
  • Susan T. Vadaparampil, PhD, MPH (H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute)
  • Catharine Wang, PhD, MSc (Boston University School of Public Health)
Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's Email Us. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Cancer Genetics Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

Permission to Use This Summary

PDQ is a registered trademark. Although the content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text, it cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless it is presented in its entirety and is regularly updated. However, an author would be permitted to write a sentence such as “NCI’s PDQ cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks succinctly: [include excerpt from the summary].”
The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:
PDQ® Cancer Genetics Editorial Board. PDQ Genetics of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Neoplasias. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/thyroid/hp/medullary-thyroid-genetics-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389271]
Images in this summary are used with permission of the author(s), artist, and/or publisher for use within the PDQ summaries only. Permission to use images outside the context of PDQ information must be obtained from the owner(s) and cannot be granted by the National Cancer Institute. Information about using the illustrations in this summary, along with many other cancer-related images, is available in Visuals Online, a collection of over 2,000 scientific images.

Disclaimer

The information in these summaries should not be used as a basis for insurance reimbursement determinations. More information on insurance coverage is available on Cancer.gov on the Managing Cancer Care page.

Contact Us

More information about contacting us or receiving help with the Cancer.gov website can be found on our Contact Us for Help page. Questions can also be submitted to Cancer.gov through the website’s Email Us.
  • Updated: May 24, 2019
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